Search Results : Ancient Egypt

• Architecture of the Ancient Egypt

  Posted on May 29, 2012 9:06 pm by Elena Comment

  Architecture of the ancient Egypt

   

  

   

  Nobody knows for sure who built the pyramids of Egypt, recent data and deeper studies suggest that they are very old dating, even thousands of years than officially Egyptologists and archaeologists have pointed out and such is the case of the Gisah Pyramid. In other pyramids they have even not found hieroglyphs, mummies, organic material or indications about who were the builders of the piramids in Egypt. In these cases even the construction date can not be determine accurately.

  The theory about these pyramids in specific; who by the way are perfectly oriented with the constellation Orion and use the number 3.14 known as “The Golden Ratio” in its construction, could possible been made by primitive Egyptians is a non sense. The Piramid of Gisah even existed before the pharaohs times for instances if difficult to believe they were only tombs. This theory is not in my opinion been neither logical or crediblel. I present the official version but in my opinion it is wrong.

  Many more studies and discoveries will clarify this issue. Some discoveries yet undisclosed; for reasons beyond my sense of logic, can proof who is right and who actually built the pyramids of Egypt and the rest of the pyramids on the planet. Luckily no truth remains hidden under the sun for long and rather sooner than latter we all will know.

   

  As I said, the official version of Egyptologists and historians indicates that:

  The ancient Egyptians used simple; yet powerful tools. Its architects designed the building of these large structures of stone with accuracy and precision. The masters of works directed supervised rigorously the multitude of workers and the constructive details to ensure that they comply with the levels expected and in accordance with the request of those who charge such works. 

  The important structures in the architecture of the ancient Egypt such as temples and tombs were built of stone instead of bricks to ensure its durability. Pure geometric forms are used in the architecture making it easy for them to shape construction project adapted to stone the most commonly used material.

  The mastaba:

  The kings used to be buried in the tombs and mastabas before starting to use the pyramids. The Mastaba was the oldest tomb style known in Egypt. In the old Kingdom was a rectangular structure roofed flat; Adobe or stone with an underground burial chamber.

  The tomb is usually composed of two distinct parts: the Chapel and the crypt. The walls of the Funeral Chapel; which were much decorated staying a backdoor as a way of symbol linking the living with the dead.

  They also placed a carved image of the owner of the Tomb. The main hall was flanked by several smaller rooms which were the provisions of the deceased containing furniture, offers, sacred text, victuals, etc. They wanted to ensure that the deceased had at its disposal the necessary on their way to the “life after death”.

   

  The pyramids:

   

  Were built during the old and middle kingdoms, but the rulers later abandoned this style for rock cut tombs which were less distinguished but much more affordable in the economic aspect as far as the cost of materials and the realization refers. The first we could be regarded as a true pyramid was built at Sakkara for King Djoser. It was called “Step pyramid” because of its shape resembling steps.

   

  

   

  The pyramids to be built later were built with their four smooth faces and began to be building in the 4th dynasty. This is the case of the great pyramid of Giza, built by King Cheops about 4,500 years ago and one of the most famously known.

  The distribution of the pyramids consisted with lounges closed; with slab floors and the roof supported by columns. In many cases both these as the walls were decorated with reliefs and paintings with hieroglyphs; which consisted of a passage or story; in which where narrated events related to religion or with reference to the life of the Pharaohs and their family as well as the deceased himself.

   

  

   

  Men worked the block of granite to chisel, and although it was a task brutally hard under a burning sun; It should be made with caution as these blocks should have a specific form and should be outlined in such a way that they fit perfectly with the rest of the blocks. Architects and supervisors stonemasons used special rods to check that the block of stone was cut with precision.

  The blocks were left in the excavation until the season of floods which allow to use barcasses (embarkations) to move them until near the pyramids; where were rising by artfully assembled ramps that facilitated them the work to assemble one block on another using strings and levers to place them in the perfect position.

   

  Once all the blocks of granite were placed in its place and checking their quality of production and Assembly; workers rubbed the blocks with casing and polishing them until they sparkled. Supervisors used sinkers to check that the angle of the slope was correct. Everything should be perfect as they had been charge by the client (Church/State/Pharaoh).

   

  The Egyptians temples:

   

  The temples were the buildings which mainly carried out official propaganda more effectively, was of course considered the home of the gods and where the Egyptians met to honor their deities and perform rites where begged for the intersection of the Gods, so that they ensure good climatic conditions that encouraged the crops to grow and also cultivation success.

  The temple was created as a copy in stone of what was done before in wood. The oldest temple the “Djoser” was dedicated to Ra in Abusir.

  However the classical temple with all its elements was born in the new Kingdom.

   

  

   

  It was the duty of the Pharaoh to take care of worship and the maintenance of these temples; so he don’t limited the resources that need to be use; and nether the best construction materials and all necessary man labor that must be addressed and whatever it takes, to keep the gods happy and faithful.

  Access to the temple was hierarchical; each social class could enter only up to a certain place. The population was generally excluded from participating in these ceremonies conducted by religious priest, Pharaoh or their representatives, even had parts of the temple considered sacred where it was strictly forbidden to enter. However the Egyptians of all classes attended worship in areas where were allowed.

   

  

   

  The sanctuary was the place for cult the image of the gods and occurred that the salons were eventually increasing in size to evolve and become large buildings made of stone. This evolution of the temples that became in a monumental worship place occurs at the time of the new Kingdom.

  Over time these temples suffered not only natural deterioration but the consequence of persecution of faith, the conquest of Rome and economic problems and negligence, as well as vandalism and theft of his sculptures and treasures. They persist today thou, over a dozen of them are visited annually by thousands of people as tourists.

   

  

   

  Civilian buildings

  Both domestic dwellings of the elite and the rest of the Egyptians were built with short durability materials; such as bricks of mud and wood. The lack of trees in this region what added to the fact of why they were less used due to the difficulties of obtaining it. These constructions with these types of materials don’t last sufficiently because of the conditions of the arid desert.

   

  

   

  The peasants lived in simple houses, in which of course there was no floor slabs or large columns they were made of mud bricks, while the palaces of the elite were more elaborate structures and with better materials. A few are still standing as tangible testimony of ancient Egyptian architecture.

  Among these we can mention the Bad kata and Amarna palaces; they show richly decorated walls and floors showing scenes with figures, as well as other topics as of birds and geometric designs.

   

  

   

   

  

   

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• Music of Italy in ancient times

  Posted on May 29, 2014 2:19 pm by Elena Comment

   

  

   

  Music of Italy in ancient times.

   

  In Italy the music as artistic means of expression had its origins in the Greek culture. The term for referring to music derives from the Greek word “Mousike”, which means “The art of the muses”. Since early times the music of Italy was as it was made in Greece based purely on melodies also know as monophonic music; (where it is used only the melody without accompaniment of chord).

   

  Principal culture influence in the early days of Italy’s music.

  The Greek traditional music had great influence in the music of Rome as also did the Etruscan but in the case of the Etruscan the Roman invaders nevertheless; full of militarism and pride don’t saw the importance of preserve those people cultural heritage. The once prosper Etruscan culture was crush under the Roman’s barbarism but also forced to be assimilated, becoming victims of a senseless cultural annihilation. Along with the Etruscans documents that the Romans burned were lost important written sources which would have served the new empire in the cultural aspects; music included.

   

  

   

  The Romans inherit as mentioned; remains roughly of what had been the music of the Etruscan but paid no attention to this knowledge. They appreciated that the Etruscans enlivened their festivities, in fact are named in the Greek and Roman Chronicles that Etruscan players brightened banquets and public festivities but is not spoken in them that the Romans had; in that particular period; interest in learning to play those instruments and less to manufacture them by which this knowledge was lost over time mostly.

  Is a pity that this had happened because the collection of Etruscan instruments was fairly large and they formed from a kind of symbiosis between Greek, Phoenician and Asia Minor music; from the Asians influence the Etruscans incorporate the flute and trumpet of war.

   

  

   

  The Etruscan interpreters of the Auloi, who were better known by the name of “subulones”, even brightened events for a long time and had a great prestige, mostly because Roman’s do not know how to interpret those instruments. In the 4th century (BC) the Subulones still retained this reputation; even in Rome where usually the Etruscans in general or descendants of those were not precisely appreciated.

  The Etruscans elaborate and interpreted also in Italy the Salpinx or “Trumpet of war” (known as tuba) that in the version that they developed obtained great fame and was often cited by the chroniclers, even though it came from the Greek world, it is know their version with the nickname tyrsenian or Tyrrhenian and is characterized by having a powerful sound.

  During the first period of Roman rule in Italy (apart from the pastor’s flute only were interpretations in a kind of lira; and with other two instruments called trigon and lidio. Flute and cymbals that are played mainly in religious sacrifices were gradually incorporated as well.

  It is thought that the powerful influence of the woodwinds in the music in Italy comes precisely from Etruscan and Greek performers of Salpinx or tuba, the Latin term which it was later popularized. The Cornu was also developed and interpreted very well by the Etruscans and Greeks, this instrument is closely linked to those of the type that the Roman soldiers in their military campaigns would use later to execute commands such as charge and withdrawn since the powerful sound of this instrument could be heard at a great distance. The tuba was used in the army for signs.

   

  Ancient Greek instruments that influenced music in Italy.

   

  –          The epigonion: Which is similar to a modern harp or psaltery. This instrument was named after the musician who was the first person to touch the strings of the epigonion with his fingers, rather than using a plectrum. The Epigonion had around 40 strings of variable lengths.

   

   

  

   

  –          Salpinx: A straight, narrow bronze tube with a mouthpiece of bone and a bell (also constructed of bronze).

  –          The Cithara: A type of lyre played in the courts of Rome and Athens.

  –          The aulos: Modern reconstructions of the instrument indicate that the aulos was similar to a clarinet but with bass and resonant sound. Made up of two tubes of double wooden, like an oboe was played at different intervals and speeds to produce a melody.

  –          The Syrinx: Named after the nymph who was transformed into a Reed to hide from “Pan” (God of fields, forests and pastures), this were the precursors of Quenas. The musician blew by a series of wooden pipes, tied one to another at the same time, tuned by their different wavelengths, creating a soothing sound popular in recitals of poetry.

  –          The Hydraulic: One of the most complicated musical instruments at that time, the old organ was driven by a supply of water and air that when combined caused an effect within the brass tubes. A well-preserved pottery model was found at Carthage in 1885.

   

  –          The monochord: Consists of a single string stretched on a case with a movable bridge, this instrument was used as a scientific instrument for measuring musical intervals in the old Greece.

  –          Lyre: Instrument played with the hand (zither) has seven or more strings, each of which is tuned with a different one of the modes note. It was a popular accompaniment to singing in the ancient Greece recitals and is still used today.

   

  –          PHORMINX:  Probably the oldest of the cithara type instruments. It was richly decorated with gold and ivory, and accompanied the singing of the epic singers called rhapsodist.

   

  

   

  –          Barbitos or Barberton: Is an instrument of the Lyre family and resembles a Lyre, but it has longer arms and narrower sound box. Musicians are frequently depicted in vases playing the Barbitos.

   

  –          ASKAULES: Named by combining the two Greek words aulos and askos (a bag located under the pig arm of the musician) was what is now known as the bagpipes.

   

  –          Pandouris or pandorium: Also called trichord because it had three strings, is the first fretted instrument known, forerunner of the various families of lutes worldwide. A fret is a raised element on the neck of a stringed instrument.

   

  Instruments used in ceremonial rituals in Rome in ancient times.

   

  Some instruments had preference on ceremonial rituals involving musical performances to emphasize the solemnity of the rituals; the tuba was used for example in funerals, private meetings and events where the sound of this instrument provided a certain atmosphere or mood more sober and content.

   

  

   

  Rome also employed a wide variety of other instruments in their daily and religious lives many of which are still in use today, for example the Scabellum, which were basically clappers, rattles like the one name Sistra that was borrowed from the Egyptians and used mostly for religious purposes. Were used for those ceremonies also bells, tambourines, and a variety of drums which were played for keeping rhythm although they were utilized also for hunting purpose as well.

   

  Instruments:

  –          The bucina: (possibly a trumpet or horn)

  –          The lituus: Probably an instrument in the form of (J) elongated,

  –          Tibiae: (double pipes) used at sacrifices.

  –          The Cymbals: Metal round plates made from different alloys. Ancient Greek plates have half-inch diameter more than the Roman plates and sound a fifth more deep than those.

  –          The tambourines: At orgiastic cults.

  –          The rattles: In the interpretation of anthems of various types like the Sistra; a rattle which had two strings with noise making metal attached across a “goal post” frame.

  –          Crotalos: Round small metal pieces used in the fingers.

   

  Latter in time and close to the Republic period the influence of Greek music is evident again in Italy. The instruments and influences of Mediterranean musical styles are manifested in the regions occupied by the Roman’s. The educated Roman’s respect and consider their Greek predecessors and so favorite their “pure” Hellenistic music forms; fairly more than the less authoritative Latin works, and so, it is the Greek music theories and thoughts that have been passed down in Italy instead of the Roman’s.

   

  

   

   

  Music during Republic period in Italy

   

  Around the year 510 BC in Rome during the Republic were recited verses accompanied by flute with comedic tone and pantomime was strong on having musical accompaniment, others curded instruments were also Incorporate. In the year 560 BC music seemed to acquire greater appreciation by the general population and was interpreted in feasts and to the musicians was granted privileges to all them from other countries who wished to settle in Rome.

  Of course Greek musicians were widely welcomed because the variety of instruments they played as well as the quality of the parts they performed that was not comparable at all with the poor level of music of a Rome immerse in war and long journeys of conquests. Only the Roman elite could afford to hire the best musicians for their feasts, political or religious events.

   

  Music during the Imperial Rome

   

  In this period the influence of Greek music in Rome continues to be quite marked, but they already begin to interpret also parts whose style has elements of music that corresponded to peoples that Rome conquered. The fusion of all those different elements originate music parts with sounds that resonate most with a novel mode of interpretation, which would be the basis of the actual Roman music.

  –          Some Innovations to instruments of Greek origin are implemented in versions of different sizes or changes in the number of attachments, such as strings, buttons air outlet and even materials used in the manufacture of the instrument. Although those innovations made do not depart to away from the original Greeks instruments.

  –          Versions of instruments originated in the regions conquered by Rome gradually are introduced in the musical public amenities or interpretations of religious nature. With the passage of time in Italy; romantic and comedic mime performers sang and danced also with the sound of pipes, brass and percussion. These regions that influenced the music of Italy the most in this period of the Roman Empire include the Iberian Peninsula and the eastern regions.

  –          Despite music been slightly condemned Children were taught it and women were expected to be capable musicians usually on some type of instruments like the lyre and/or pipes.

  –          There is evidence showing that from the century (v B.C.) the melodic lines are now accompanied in the fourth and the fifth interval. Specific melodies were used in this period only for certain occasions. “The new applications of these melodies were known by the term “nomoi”, or also known as “laws”. The “nomoi” are what is now equated with the concept of “modes”.

   

  

   

  Romans borrowed their musical theory and instruments from the cultures around them and adapted them to their needs for example the Barbitos the bass of the lyre family with its long strings and was thought to have originated on Lesbos. Was considered an instrument of pleasure at parties and festive gatherings for Roman because of the excitation it sound produce.

  The music in this period is subject to the vagaries, likes, dislikes and follies of the successive emperors. Since Cesar, who liked music and organized shows with many musicians, passing by Augustus who considered that music at the shows were a medium that helped distract the masses, containing them and diverting their attention from economic and political crucial problems. Emperor Tiberius that banished all the musicians for a murder committed in a theatre, as well as others who liked the music as Caligula, Claudius and Nero this last one was so obsessed with music that went as far as proclaim it as the main element of happiness of the Empire, causing his compulsive madness to do that the Romans not appreciate music in the future even after the fall of the Roman Empire.

  During the Roman Imperial period they took their music to the provinces under their power.Roman-style instruments are found in parts of the Empire where they did not originate initially. This is a fact indicative of music been among the different thing that Roman culture spread by the provinces.A strong influence between cultures occurs in this period when the traditions of Asia Minor, North Africa and Gaul influenced Roman as well. In the last period of the Roman Empire the influence from the oriental region is significant and that is show in the instruments and interpretation of the songs.

  The music accompanied the shows and events in the arena and was part of the performing arts form called pantomimes, an early form of the story of the ballet that combines expressive dance, instrumental music and libretto Sung. Music was also accompanying theatrical performances and recitals of poets. In Verdiales in the ruins of Pompeii had been found mosaics depicting musicians with their instruments performing in the streets and that is an indication that the roman’s like music as well outside the theaters, coliseums or ritual celebrations. 

   

  

   

  Musical notations did not appear in Rome until the 9th century when was used by the clergy to standardize the hymns accompanying officiate rituals Have not been found evidence that there was a standardized form to interpret the music still in that period, rather it was the simple implementation of the so-called “neumes” because they determined when the intensity of the music should raise or when should lower.

  Neumes

  – Actus: High intensity.

  – Gravus: Low intensity.

  No chronicles or bibliography had been found that provided so far a significant or unique contribution in theory or practice of music for a long period between the fall of the Roman Empire and the strengthening of the Christianization in the Italian peninsula.

   

  Bibliography:

   

  -Jacques HEURGON: the daily life of the Etruscans. Madrid: Temas de today, 1991.

  -Santiago MONTERO: “Etruscan music”. Journal of archaeology, no. 12 (1980), pp. 18-25.

  -Massimo PALLOTINO: Etruscology. Buenos Aires: Eudeba, 1965.

  –Angel Roman Ramirez: Music in Tartessos and the pre-Roman Iberia. Raleigh (N.C.): Lulu Enterprise, 2009.

  -Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus. De institutione music. (English edition as Fundamentals of Music, translated, with introduction and notes by Calvin M. Bower; edited by Claude V. Palisca.) New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.)

  -Marcuse, Sibyl. 1975 musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary, corrected edition. Norton Library. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. ISBN 0-393-00758-8.

  -Scott, j. e. 1957. ‘Roman Music’ in The New Oxford History of Music, vol.1: ‘Ancient and Oriental Music,’ Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  -Ulrich, Homer, and Paul Pisk. 1963. A History of Music and Musical Style. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanoich.

  -West, Martin Litchfield. 1992. Ancient Greek Music. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814897-6 (cloth) ISBN 0-19-814975-1 (pbk).

   

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• The Egyptian Pottery.

  Posted on September 11, 2013 1:03 pm by Elena 2 Comments

  

   

  The Egyptian pottery

   

  The forms of ancient Egyptian pottery were numerous. Vases were made principally for practical use and not for ornament although the decoration in some of them is remarkable. The amphora, in Egypt as in all ancient countries was the most common and most useful vase, was made in all sizes, from the three-inch oil or perfume container to the immense jar of three or four feet in height, for holding water, wine, oil, or grain.

   

  

   

  Pottery provides a secure support for dating of all archaeological finds. The studies of their dating shed light on the proper period produced as well as the cultural affiliations and economic aspects around them. People start creating pottery vessels very early in time In order to have something were to keep wheat products and grains in them so it wouldn’t get wet and go moldy. Pottery was used for utilitarian tasks such as cooking, storage, and shipping. In Egypt artisan produced interesting shapes ceramic figures, vessels, and even sarcophagi which were very much a part of ancient Egyptian funerary practices.

  The earliest Egyptian pottery already had geometric designs on it. The Egyptians made two kinds of pottery:

  –          The ordinary made soft pottery.

  –          The coarse, gritty compound, lacking cohesion, sandy, easily crumbled, very white, but always covered with a strong glaze or enamel.

  The purpose of the ancient ceramic in Egypt as well as the one of their contemporaries cover; domestic use, funerary, festival, and ritual contexts. Egypt produced several varieties of unglazed pottery. The most common pottery was the ordinary red, cream-colored, and the yellow ones. The art of covering pottery with enamel was invented by the Egyptians at a very early date. They applied it to stone as well as to pottery. Enameled pottery was also used for inlaying purposes in ornamental work.

   

  

   

  Ceramic material allow be interpreted in its wider socio-economic context. The studies about this pottery derived from analyzing many sites in Egypt from the Delta in the north to Elephantine in the south, and covering a chronological range from the Old Kingdom to the Coptic period.

   

  The pottery with funerary purpose made in Egypt show a large numbers of smaller enameled potteries which were deposited with the dead; they are very well preserved and provide very important information. The most common founded were those now called Osirian figures, usually representing mummies. They are found both unglazed and enameled, in red pottery and in with a hard, gritty pottery.

  The pottery that corresponds with the pre dynastic Egypt was often of a surprisingly fine quality. The so called “Badarian” period pottery was made without the use of a potter’s wheel, and it was usually the woman who elaborated the pottery. These beautiful pieces were burnished to a lustrous finish. They were probably fired in either open bonfires or very primitive kilns, but remain some of the most astonishing pottery ever produced in Egypt.

  From the Naqada period (4,000 – 3,000 BC) until the dynastic period, paintings without guides, repetitive templates or fixed concepts were added to the pottery freely.  Animal’s figures, patterns, boats and human figures were depicted.

   

   

   

  The potter’s wheel in Egypt was invented in the Old Kingdom. At first this device was a simple turntable, but later evolved into a true potter’s wheel, requiring better preparation of the clay and more control during firing. These potter’s wheels were still hand turned. With the potter’s wheel more refined kilns were constructed, this new technique allowed pottery to be made in more abundance, but did not entirely replace all other forms of pottery making. For example, bread moulds continued to be handmade around a core known as a “Patrix”.

   

  

   

  After the pottery was formed, either by a potter’s wheel or more primitive means, it would have been left to thoroughly dry. If the surface was to be burnished, after drying the pottery would have been polished with pebbles and then painted or perhaps engraved and finally fired, probably in a not confined place during pre dynastic times, until the development of kilns.

  Egyptian pottery can be divided into two broad categories dependent on the

  type of clay that was used.

  –          The pottery made with Nile clay, and known as Nile silt ware. This potter after being fired, it has a red-brown color, been used for common, utilitarian purposes, though at times it might have been decorated or painted. Blue painted pottery was somewhat common during the New Kingdom (1,550-1,069 BC).

  –          The pottery made from ‘marl clay’. This type of pottery was usually thought superior to the common Nile mud pottery, often used for decorations and other functions. Was often burnished, leaving a shiny glaze like surface although it was not a truly glace process.

  Shaping Methods of Pottery Use in Egypt

  –          Hand-shaping,

  –          Hand-shaping pottery and finished with a turning device.

  –          Shaping on a wheel.

   

   

  

   

  Hand-shaping methods of pottery use in Egypt

   

  1) Forming a single piece of clay by the use of free-hand shaping,

  2) Shaping with a paddle and anvil,

  3) Shaping on a core or over a hump,

  4) Shaping with a mold.

  5) Building with a slab or coil.

   

  It can be said in a summary that the pottery production in ancient Egypt was a significant industry that produces a variety of goods that serve well to resolve the basic needs presented to this culture of counting with  appropriate containers for liquids and solids. For us today these potteries are serving another different purpose but not less important because they are providing us with a wide range of answers to multiples questions still unresolved about this ancient civilization history, their religious dogmas and their social life.

   

  

   

   

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• Ancient Sumerian Culture

  Posted on July 2, 2012 3:31 pm by Elena 1 Comment

   

  Ancient Sumerian culture

  History traditionally established the beginning of civilizations; either in Egypt first or in the fertile valleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris latter, were indeed took place one of the earliest forms of coexistence which could be considered civilized forms of social organization, although they were not the first. This region is referred to as “Mesopotamia” which means between two rivers. From the Neolithic period were uncovered recently some man made stone structures, probably ceremonials,  located no far from where the two rivers run fertilizing this land.

  This structures in Gobekli Tepe had been dated  from around 12 ,000 to 10,000; although the civilization who build the ceremony structures, most has been already developed much early. Some human settlements  were established in the immediate zone to where the ceremony circles were made, although they most have to walk considerable distances to get to the ceremonial place nevertheless. This recently uncovered settlements, are subject of intense studies to determine this people level of evolution and complexity  of their social gathering.

  The same depp studies are carry up to other human settlements in different places of the planet: like for example Mohenjo Daro and Dholavira in India or in other places like China, because they are showing  rest of developed ancient civilizations as well, olders than the ones formed in mesopotamia and Egypt.

   

   

  

   

  The circular stone pillars in Gobekli Tepe reveal that Stone Age man had a surprisingly high level of artistic sophistication and that is proof of an already extremely complex specialization that mark the beginning of a more multifaceted  society. The stone circular complex date 2,000 years before man settled permanently to farm.

   

  

   

  This important recent discovery had radically change our understanding of the birth of civilization. The new knowledge reveals that hunter-gatherer societies in the Neolithic Period were more organized than we previously think.  Historians and archeologist had become to the conclusion that the planning and organization of this structures in the valley of Gobekli Tepe show organized societies of man even that they are not completed settled, because they still are hunters and gathering people who nevertheless initiate some form of primitive storages rooms for food, to distribute to all participants in the ceremony monument construction. It seems that for the Gobekli Tepe men’s religion lead them to form group and meet resources and efforts to construct such big ceremonies carved stone figures, leaving their mark in man made artistic monuments starting 10,000 years ago.

  The agriculture enable nevertheless a development that transformed what is was until then a society forced to ride a wandering or nomadic life into civilized societies with sedentary features, factor that provide the possibility for improving the artistic manifestations, initiated with the adoration purpose first  and then extended to other expression like decoration with the intention to narrate other important aspects of their daily life.

  SUMERIA

  Many years later others people settled in the Mesopotamia region and more complex civilizations were found, starting by the Sumerian culture and following by Babylonians and Assyrians.

   

  

   

  Sumer – Ubaid culture

   

  We will now focus in the civilization that settled in Sumer in the southwest region of Mesopotamia, which corresponds to the present-day IRAQ. They emerged and subsequent  flourishing between the period that corresponds to the late copper age and the beginnings of the Bronze Age. This civilization called “UBAID” can be considered the first who established and becomes a predominant force in this region after coming from northern of Mesopotamia.

  Their settlement and development can be positioned between the 3600 and 4000 B.C. Although these first settlers of Sumer did not speak the Sumerian language.

  The cities of Sumer were the first to develop a system of agriculture involving work carried out throughout the entire year, with its stages of planting, cultivation and harvesting. They  installed an irrigation system that allowed them to gather these crops with considerable success and attended by a force of labored farmers  specialized in it.

  The invention of the wheel and a better technique in the production of metals allowed this culture with important advances in the field of agriculture.

   

  

   

  In addition to agriculture, the Ubaid culture developed a commercial exchange, established certain industries such as weaving and also worked the skins, the masonry, metallurgy and ceramics.

  The unique works of art of the Ubaid period that are known to us are their clay figurines made by hand, almost always naked female figures, they are carefully made with detail in the finish; the bodies show to be subject to certain conventions, such as the marked angularity of the shoulders.Figures are quite realistic but static; showing a geometric simplification in shapes and large eyes.

  These minor arts are characteristic of the Ubaid culture; but it was in the architecture were Ubaid made an immediate and most lasting contribution.

  In a land devoid of stones to be used in the construction and without hard wood that would serve for this purpose, they only could count on the materials provided by nature, and these were the mud and reeds. But thanks to immigrants from the delta; who have brought with them knowledge of the realization of raw clay bricks it was possible that those were used in the construction of temples. They also used immensely high and rugged reeds  and most of its buildings were carried out with these.

   

  Dynasty of Sargon

   

  Sumer was formed by several City-States, each of which was a political unit in itself with its own sovereign and laws; these City-States were unified by King Sargon I, in the year 2300 B.C. It is known by those scriptures that they had slaves and that the monarchy was  dynastic, the Kings and dynasties mentioned in the Sumerian Kings list can be traced back in the middle of the third millennium.

  In Sumer, most of its inhabitants in this historical period were already talking Sumerian language that is not related to other ancient languages that are known. Each city had a  protector God with their corresponding temples, storages and houses and its inhabitants attended the religious function and management their large agricultural properties; while others were specializing in different trades such as weavers, potters and goldsmiths.

  The dynasty of Sargon between (2300 – 2223 BC) has left few samples in monuments. Highly sophisticated cylindrical clay seals were used to mark documents or property, they are so numerous and informative that they constitute a key element understanding the many factor about this culture in general.

   

  

   

   

  Cylinder seals of the SARGON period presented a change in the topics they represent. The ritual feast scene preferred in the early dynastic period is lost completely and are introduced a whole series of religious scenes and mythological themes represented in a rather dramatic way.

  There is also a change in style. They moves from a crowded representation of the elements of the composition in the scenes; to be these free and independent figures gaining themselves a lot more importance within the entire “Assembly”.

   

  

   

   

  Some sculptures have been found in the Temple of ABU, Tell Asmar, dating from a period  approximately between the (2700 and 2600) they are a good statement about the sculpture of this Sargon period.

   

  

   

  Most have overlapping hands on each other and crossed over the chest in reverential position, while the main figures represented by its high headdresses, have reptiles forms rather than human, a quality that is perhaps due to lack of skill of the artist, although this claim  has not been proven, so also may have been intentional and with a meaning to represent accurately as possible the reality around them, since other figures representing animals are very well depicted with success.

  Many of them are nude male statues in static position from the waist upwards carrying  what looks like a skirt of woven wool. Men are show wearing long hair with a beard of wavy  hair. The female figures were a kind of headgear. Sometimes the hair of these female figures is covered with a kind of cloth of linen; with which holding the hair. It is worth highlighting the fact about the hierarchical representation of the size of the figures; they are in order of importance from the gods to the worshipers.  This custom is displayed both in the early period and in the subsequent periods as well, keeping as a  constant in the Sumerian art and passing it along to other cultures with which they had contact. This formula have passed the test of times.

   

  

   

  Have been found some sculptures in metal and also others made with the process that is known as the “Lost wax” as well as made of diorite, copper, gold and silver in warehouses, in which was kept not only grain, figs, etc., but also vessels, weapons, tablets of ceramics with detailed records of businesses, sculptures and possible anything related to the  use and the administration of the Palace and the temple.

  There are some figures showing a ritual nudity who have been also found and belong to this culture but; in a rather limited quantity representing figures of priests.

  Was in Sumer where writing was developed for the first time, progressing from a stage of proto-writing prior up to the actual writing in the third millennium. However this literary awakening most of the population was illiterate, only scribes knew and developed this ability as it was the case in the majority of ancient cultures. It is not yet determined from where came the sumerian language as is not yet determined ether where the writing abilities come from.

  Printed cuneiform tablets of pottery and cylinders has been of priceless value to know and understand many aspects of its social, administrative, political and religious system some of the parameters governing then displays a curious similarity to those governing today throughout the world.

   

  

   

   Reliefs carved in stone ware apparently a popular artistic expression that enabled them to capture important events, legends, celebrations and of course respect for the gods as well as passages from their hostilities. The picture below show some genies from the Sargon II period.

   

  

  Sumerian architecture seems to have developed two types of temples:

   

  – Varied platform.

  – Built at floor level.

   

  The temples were; a kind of house of mud brick to which the gods supposedly; as the Sumerian disclaim, came to visit regularly, those homes were on platforms made of mud bricks also and were growing in size and height according to the course of the years. These platforms are known with the name of  “Ziggurat”, and can be considered as one of the first large architectural structures.

   

  

   

  In the Ubaid  period (5200-c.3500 BC); the temple satisfied the formula with the majority of  the architectural characteristics of the typical Temple of Sumerian platform. It is built of  mud bricks on a raised plinth made of the same material, and its walls presented in its outer surface elements that fuse decorative look and structural reinforcement at the same time alternating between buttresses (brackets) and gaps on.

  In both types of temples mentioned above decorative elements are made quite well and in which the appearance of the finish is carefully maintained. That is also the case of walls in the decor in which they used a mosaic artwork attached by cones of terracotta and sunk into the wall, its exposed ends look bright colors or they are coated in bronze.

   

   

   

  UR Dynasty

  The city of Lagash was a city of great importance in the Sumerian period and approximately in the 4th millennium BC still retained that preponderance and was a centre of artistic development under the supremacy of the Kings of “Ur”. It is known that during this period, this city had extensive commercial communications with distant realms. In this city the most important treasures of artistic value of the Sumerian culture have been discovered  by archaeologists.

   

  

   

  The sculpture representing a bull was used it with the purpose to decorate a harp

  found in the tomb of Puabi date from around 2600 BC, exhibits a wealth of surprising decorative elements and is made of gold and lapis lazuli.

   

  

   

  The standard of UR belonging to Sumerian Culture  and from the UR dynasty is a very important art piece that shows the artistic skills rich by them in with the images represent different aspects in the life of these early civilizations. Some of them are rituals, ceremony, battles and the political and social division.

  During the reign of Ur; the time in with some important developments contributed to the prosperity of the region,  important events took place and modifications were made who elevated this civilization to a higher level.

  1. –  Reforms were carried out: It was drafted the so-called code of “Ur-Nammu”.
  2. – They unified jurisprudence.
  3. – Established the equivalence between different currencies.
  4. – Existing channels were opened.
  5. – The temples were rebuilt.
  6. -In this period of splendor of the Sumerian arts were also made important sculptures with materials brought from far away as it is the case of the diorite; that have been found in excavations in this area.

  

   

  Sumerian Art final conclusions

   

  This culture has been known through their representations of art in different manifestations such as: architecture, sculpture and ceramics, these men had  knowledge quite advanced for their time in many other subjects also as mathematics, chemistry, alchemy and medicine among other no less important as the astronomy and physics. How they come to such knowledge in a short amount of time remains still been an incognito. 

  These skills were enriched and evolving until amazing achievements were obtained during different periods by which the Sumerian culture crossed.

  This claim could be verified thanks largely to the Scriptures, which were left in its buildings, sculptures, as well as different artifacts that were found in their warehouses. Some artifacts of funeral character were located in their buried sites and show not only functional  value but also have a high artistic level.

   

  

   

  In short, it can be said based on the important evidence found in these areas that Sumerian Ancient Culture was a solid foundation for many of the ones who also established later in this region, such as the Assyrians and the Babylonians.

  

   

  Reliefs and exempt sculptures use religious themes and were also placed in these temples; not only as decoration element since they were also used as protection, devotion and  adoration. It is considerable little what is known about the palaces and other buildings of the Sumerian culture.

   

   

   

   

   

   

   

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  📂This entry was posted in Ancient Sumerian Culture 📎and tagged Mesopotamia Ubaid UR Harp

• Egyptian Sculpture

  Posted on May 29, 2012 8:36 pm by Elena Comment

   

   

  Ancient Egyptian Sculpture. 

  

   

  The sculptor in Egypt was not considered or assessed as an artist or first character, was a character in the second category (and was not so in the case of the architect).This occurred because sculptors were engaged in a manual activity purely on request, by what the initiative or the creative aspect were not precisely what was required of them, only the one that  conducted to the realization of the commissioning or order to be done to perfection; according to the specifications of the client (Church and State) the only ones that could have scope to acquire these ornamental and decorative pieces. So the execution of the work was made not taking in account the artisan point of view or creativity. The results of those commissioned labor today are works of art of unquestionable value nevertheless.  

   

  

   

  Interesting sculptures from the Roman Egypt period like the one who represent the god Horus with roman style clothes and shoes; show the fusion of elements from those culture were; the typical rigid egyptian position of the figure have variations with one foot slightly forward and his knees apart draped in a garment. From the waist down, he could be a senior Olympian deities or Roman emperor, while from the waist up keep egyptian elements as the bird head with the hieratic expression. (Click on the photo to learn more about this sculpture and the work made by the scientific at the British Museum).

   

  

   

   

  General characteristics of Egyptian sculpture:

  1. They are utilitarian in nature.
  2. A purpose is not aesthetic (the beauty of them is something secondary).
  3. It is a hieratic sculpture.
  4. Solemn and ceremonious.
  5. The human figures excessively respected the rules of the official label. (Front to dignify the character) if it is round and with the head of profile if it is highlighted.

   

   

  

   

   

  The exempt Egyptian sculpture’s

   

  – They are rigid.

  – Static.

  – Idealized.

  – Without movement.

  – They show no feelings or emotions, expression serene without passion.

  – The arms are attached to the body (sculpture block for technical reasons and to ensure strength and durability).

  – Use of paste artificial eyes of glass to accentuate the depth of his gaze.

  – They are limestone, polychrome wood and the most important in granite and basalt.

   

  The egyptian sculptures in relief

   

  – Polychrome use in low relief and is address to meet the contour of the figure (hole-relieve).

  – They show no effects of perspective.

  – All the figures are of the same size except the Pharaoh to emphasize their power.

  – Completive technique is used: (parts of the front, the bust and the eyes and parts of the head, legs and feet of the profile).

  – The compositions are always symmetrical and perfectly arranged symbolically.

  – Items ranging from everyday scenes and agricultural work to the great feats of the Pharaohs, always counted by selecting the main and most appropriate moments and counting in a horizontal row, one after the other as a narrative sequence.

  – Seeks to not leave any empty space (HORRO VACUI).

   

   

  

   

   

  Famous sculptures; very well preserved many of them; are the admiration of millions of people today; they are true works of art showing a high degree of expertise, they are made in various materials, some more durable than others, but nevertheless because thousands of these works were kept in the tombs for their owners this artifacts were preserved in good condition thanks to been stored in special conditions where they were not directly exposed to the severity of the desert.

   

   

  

   

   

  

   

  The Egyptian ceramic and Pottery will be explained better in a separate post because this manifestation have a wide range of important elements that shoul be adressed separate.

  

   

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  📂This entry was posted in Egyptian Sculpture and Ceramic 📎and tagged Egyptian Sculpture. Ceramic horro vacui